The Importance of Lifestyle Entrepreneurship a Conceptual Study of the Tourism Industry - Free Essay Example

Vol. 7 N? 2 pags. 393-405. 2009 www. pasosonline. org The importance of lifestyle entrepreneurship: A conceptual study of the tourism industry Mike Peters ii University of Innsbruck (Austria) Joerg Frehse iii University of Innsbruck (Austria) Dimitrios Buhalis iv Bournemouth University (UK) Abstract: The purpose of the paper is to explore and discuss the emergence of lifestyle entrepreneurship. The article addresses the question of the relationship between entrepreneur’s life quality and enterprise growth. The purpose is to conceptualize this relationship and to learn more about lifestyle entrepreneurship. Tourism serves as a case industry to illustrate both relevant research in the field of lifestyle entrepreneurship and a conceptual framework to examine the relationship between entrepreneurial activities and perceived life quality. The paper delivers a literature review on entrepreneurship and certain forms of entrepreneurship and conceptualizes lifestyle enterprise’s growth. Keywords: Lifestyle; Entrepreneurship; Tourism; Entrepreneurial Motives. Resumen: El objetivo del trabajo es explorar y analizar el surgimiento de la iniciativa empresarial como estilo de vida. El articulo aborda la relacion entre la calidad de vida del empresario y el crecimiento empresarial. El proposito es conceptualizar esta relacion para aprender mas sobre el espiritu empresarial como estilo de vida. El turismo aporta una serie de casos para ilustrar la investigacion pertinente en el ambito de la iniciativa empresarial como estilo de vida y un marco conceptual para examinar la relacion entre las actividades empresariales y la calidad de vida percibida. El documento ofrece una revision de la literatura sobre el espiritu empresarial y ciertas formas de iniciativa y conceptualiza el crecimiento de la iniciativa empresarial como estilo de vida. Palabras clave: Estilo de vida; Empresa; Turismo, Motivos para emprender. Associate Professor. Department of Strategic Management, Marketing and Tourism. University of Innsbruck. Universitatsstrasse 15. A-6020 Innsbruck. Web: https://www. uibk. ac. at/smt/ Email: mike. [emailprotected] ac. at. https://www. uibk. ac. t/smt/ iii Department of Strategic Management, Marketing and Tourism, University of Innsbruck. Universitatsstrasse 15. A6020 Innsbruck. Web: https://www. frehsehotels. com. Email: joerg. [emailprotected] com iv International Centre for Tourism Hospitality Research. Bournemouth University, Talbot Campus, Fern Barrow, Poole, Dorset, BH12 5BB, UK. Tel: +44 1202 966966. Fax: +44 1202 515707. Web: https://www. bournemouth. ac. uk/services-management/. Email: [emailprotected] ac. uk ii  © PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural. ISSN 1695-7121 394 The importance of lifestyle entrepreneurship The importance of entrepreneurship Globalization in the nineties signalled a whole range of new challenges for many lifestyle entrepreneurs, owner-managers and all those who were unable to reorient themselves strategically towards the rapidly emerging market conditions. This is the situation in which still many entrepreneurs find themselves. Once again the growth-oriented Schumpeterian innovative entrepreneur is called upon to restructure and realign the industry (Gray, 2002; Schmitz, 1989; Peters and Weiermair, 2001). The tourism and hospitality industries are dominated by small business and the vast majority of the entrepreneurs are lifestylers rather than rational professionals (Middleton, 2001). The majority of small business owners hardly show typical entrepreneurial attitudes, as described by Schumpeter (1934). This paper attempts to explore the importance of these so-called lifestyle entrepreneurs in a conceptual way to shed more light on the understanding of their motives as well as discuss policy implications. The paper is structured in four sections: it starts with a literature overview of lifestyle entrepreneurship concepts which highlight main contributions of economic and social science theories (Alvarez and Busenitz, 2001; Leibenstein, 1968; Swedberg, 2000). In a second step the paper analyses the determinants and consequences of lifestyle orientation and derives implications and threats for regional competitiveness and/or economic growth. The third section presents and discusses the concepts of quality of life approach and the profile of the lifestyle entrepreneur. Finally, research gaps are identified and new initiatives for entrepreneurship research are presented in the concluding part of the paper. Forms of Entrepreneurship Entrepreneurs create an innovative organization or network of organizations for the purpose of gain or growth, under conditions of risk and/or uncertainty (Dollinger, 2003). This includes the core elements of entrepreneurship, which can be found in the numerous definitions in the social sciences literature. Even though academics have addressed a range of questions concerning both with the nature of the entrepreneurial process and the attributes and personality traits of entrepreneurs, research is still short of a consensus on some of the most important questions. The task of finding a consensual interpretation is rendered also somewhat difficult by the great variety of methods and methodology employed by different disciplines engaged in analysing entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship (Kirby, 2002; Gartner, 1985; Timmons, 1994). In economics and management literature the entrepreneur and his/her capabilities have remained a focal point of interest, but also of controversy. Ever since Schumpeter (1934), economic development has become associated with entrepreneurship. The nature and function of this new factor of production however becomes interpreted in different ways: for Cantillion (1755), Liefmann (1897), Knight (1921) and Oberparleiter (1930) risk assumption presents the core of entrepreneurship; for Schumpeter (1934) innovation and/or innovative capabilities characterises the entrepreneur; while others emphasized capabilities associated with capita (Burns 2001). Cyert and March (1963) view entrepreneurs capabilities to coordinate different interest groups as the core function of entrepreneurship, while Kirzner (1973) and Mises (1940) emphasize information leads and advantages as the key to an understanding of entrepreneurship. Leibenstein (1966; 1968) believes entrepreneurs to simply behave differently (more efficiently) in the use and transformation of factor inputs and interprets entrepreneurship as a process within organisations (Morris and Lewis, 1995; Mugler, 1998). The origins of theory development in the field of entrepreneurship demonstrate that there have been only a handful of theorists who have contributed with novel paradigms to this field of economic and management research. Among them, the late Joseph A. Schumpeter who introduced the discussion of the origins and importance of entrepreneurship to its intellectual height with the publication of the Theory of Economic Development (first published 1912) linking PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural, 7(3). 2009 ISSN 1695-7121 Mike Peters ; Joerg Frehse and Dimitrios Buhalis 395 entrepreneurship to innovation. He defined nate entrepreneurship research. However, the entrepreneur as an individual who caras entrepreneurial behaviour is not only ries out new combinations of firm organizadriven by rational decision structures, tion, new products or services, new sources other disciplines need to be engaged to enor raw material, new methods of produchance explanations on the entrepreneurial tion, new market segment, or new forms of process. Nevertheless, it is possible to exorganization. Schumpeter (1934) saw in the tract typical entrepreneurial characteristics entrepreneur an exceptional individual, or personality traits such as creativity, capable of developing new product combirisk-taking, innovativeness and pronations, attributes or innovations. Hence, activeness which could be observed in difthe entrepreneur has to come up with a ferent social, political or economic envirealistically calculated risk for future marronments (Timmons, 1994). Morrison ket opportunities, based on past experi(2006) throws more light upon the concepences and the transformation of uncertualisation of various forms of entrepretainty into profitable neurship. She formulated three main cues outcome. of entrepreneurship, followed by the extracTo this point Schumpeter wrote: ‘As tion of main entrepreneurial guises. ilitary action Dicipline Researchers must be taken in given strategic Economists Cantillion (1964 first published 1755); Casson positions, even if (2005); Schumpeter (1934), Baumol (1989), all the data poLazear (2005) tentially procurEcology Aldrich (1990), Singh and Lumsden (1990) able are not Sociology Weber (1935) available, so also in economic life, Anthropology Barth (2000); Greenfield and Strickton (1986) action must be Psychology McClelland (1961); Miner (1997) taken without History Gerschenkron (2000); Sawyer (1952) working out all the details of Tabla 1. Disciplines and respective representatives in the field of enwhat is to be trepreneurship research done. Here the success of everyHaving a closer look upon the characterthing depends upon intuition, the capacity istics of entrepreneurial guises, such as the of seeing things in a way which afterwards case for lifestyle, social or family entrepreproves to be true, even though it cannot be neurs, it can be observed that there is often established at the moment, and of grasping a clear orientation towards non-economic the essential fact, disregarding the unesmotives (Morrison, 2006). The attitude tosential, even though one can give no acwards entrepreneurship or the willingness count of the principles by which this is for independence can be the result of negadone’ (Schumpeter, 1934). tive or positive guises. In the latter case, Since Schumpeter, a long list of wellfounding an enterprise may be viewed as known researchers (for instance Papanan opportunity to improve one’s lifestyle dreou, 1952; Kirzner, 1973; Casson, 1982, and as taking better control of everyday Low and MacMillan, 1988; Miner, 1997; life. Others may perceive stress, inconvenGartner, 2001; Schneider, 2001) contribience or negative pressure when thinking of uted to the analysis of entrepreneurship entrepreneurship in small businesses. and entrepreneurship theory. In the second There is no doubt that a positive attitude half of the last century personality traits towards entrepreneurship alone is not sufresearch became a major field in social scificient to motivate a person to develop a ences research. Nevertheless, only a few tourism business. However, the intention to studies could provide general insight into create a business does only occur when the the behaviour of entrepreneurs in every attitude towards entrepreneurship is posiculture, nation or industry. tive (Koh, 1996). Economists and economic theory domi- PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural, 7(3). 2009 ISSN 1695-7121 396 The importance of lifestyle entrepreneurship Positive Social †¢ Role of the family and intergenerational role models †¢ †¢ Economic †¢ †¢ Conducive culture Supportive networks †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ ment Negative Political/religious displacePolitical unrest Discrimination Unhappy with position in society Corporate downsizing and redundancy Dissatisfaction with/blocked employment opportunities Discriminatory legislation No other way to make money Move towards services Reversal highly vertically integrated company structures †¢ Psychological †¢ Phenomenon of ‘dot. com’ business Entrepreneurial aspirations of independence, wealth, need to achieve, social mobility etc. Table 2: Entrepreneurial Behaviour Cues (Source: Morrison, 2006, 197) These classifications should not be interpreted as static ones. Entrepreneurship describes the process of establishing new ventures or managing innovations. These entrepreneurial events can be produced in a given time period and thus entrepreneurship is a question of ‘how much’ and ‘how often’ (Morris and Lewis, 1995). Morris and Lewis illustrated the relationship of the amount of entrepreneurship (measured as number of entrepreneurial events) and the degree of entrepreneurship (extent to which the event is innovative, risky or proactive) and named the combination of the two dimensions ‘entrepreneurial intensity’. The importance of lifestyle entrepreneurship: the case of the tourism industry Tourism, hospitality and leisure industries are primarily based on entrepreneurship and small businesses (Thomas, 1998, 2000, Morrison et al. , 1998, Getz, 2004, Buhalis and Main, 1998). Morrison and Thomas (1999) suggest that the key elements of entrepreneurship in tourism include: Change initiation: the capability of identifying an opportunity for creation or inPASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural, 7(3). 2009 ovation and the ability to turn it into a reality Creative resourcing: ingeniously marshalling resources of both financial and managerial nature, from a complex set of sources, in order to mobilise and realise the opportunity. Entrepreneurial learning: motivation to acquire the necessary knowledge and expertise through relevant exploration and reflection, in order to excel. Innovation and creativity: renewal of products or services by adding value through application of expertise and imag ination. Knowledge leadership: development of sources of management information to enable first mover capability, effective strategy formulation and implementation. Opportunity alertness: continuous focus on emerging trends and opportunities to be captured and realised. Relationship management: maintenance of effective teams, networks, and flexible management structures. Timing of action: acting within a limited window in which an opportunity can be optimised. Vision and strategic orientation: FormuISSN 1695-7121 Mike Peters ; Joerg Frehse and Dimitrios Buhalis 397 lation of ambitions, and strategies to realise them. However, the majority of entrepreneurs in the tourism and leisure industries can be found in the lower area of low entrepreneurial intensity (Morrison, 2006). It seems that given that tourism and leisure industries are primarily located in attractive regions there is a much higher concentration of lifestyle entrepreneurs and this is often the main motivation for entrepreneurial activity. Characteristics of lifestyle entrepreneurs Conceptualizing lifestyle entrepreneurship can be achieved through several alternative perspectives. This paper adopts an economic theory point of view. An increasing number of research studies analysed the phenomena of lifestyle entrepreneurs, as the opposite of the growth-oriented or typical Schumpeterian entrepreneurs. Lifestyle firms are businesses set up primarily either to undertake an activity the ownermanager enjoys or to achieve a level of activity that provides adequate income (Burns, 2001). The opposite are growth firms that are set up by an entrepreneur in the traditional Schumpeterian sense to grow and to raise profit through sales or through selling the business on to someone else. From an economist’s perspective lifestyle entrepreneurs accept suboptimal levels of production. The leisure and tourism industries have always attracted a large number of small businesses and non-growth oriented ownership-entrepreneurs. The perceived nice life, often close to the beach or the alpine regions or at attractive parts of city, has frequently motivated entrepreneurs to leave their job and adventure in tourism and hospitality. Quite often this implied primarily following a dream, often with no experience, training or expertise in these areas. Sometimes this is financed with savings from property or previous careers and is propelled by plenty of optimism that things will work out. The prospect of living at the attractive region, where entrepreneurs may have visited as tourists made all other business aspects that come with that look irrelevant or secondary. The prime motivation was to enjoy the perceived qual- ity of life and do something on the side, to sustain a certain lifestyle and economic status. Since Williams et al. (1989) initially observed this phenomenon of non-growth oriented entrepreneurs in tourism, a number of studies support the existence of many non-economically motivated entrepreneurs, who seriously constrain the development of tourism destinations or regions (Ateljevic and Doorne, 2000; Shaw and Williams, 1990, 1998). Much of the one and two star inns, guest houses, room and breakfast places and local restaurants which sprang up during the build up phase of mass tourism in the seventies fit the criteria of these lifestyle businesses. Research carried out by Williams et al. (1989), Shaw and Williams (1990; 2003; 2004), Thomas (2000) and Ateljevic and Doorne (2000; 2001) strongly support the fact that small size businesses are the playground for specific entrepreneurial cultures, such as lifestyle entrepreneurs (Shaw and Williams, 2003). Characteristics of lifestyle entrepreneurs are: Motivated by quality of life rather than growth Main priority is life style rather than customer service very limited growth orientation Underutilisation of resources and capital investment Irrational management and non Returnon-investment based decision making limited marketing and product development expertise and activities under utilisation of information and communication technologies ( Buhalis and Main, 1998) fail to appreciate the ICT opportunities arising (Paraskevas and Buhalis, 2002) reluctance to accept professional advice or external involvement motivated by survival and sufficient income to maintain their and their families’ way of life (Komppula, 2004) low education and training on management are not fully aware of quality management techniques (Morrison and Thomas 1999) low involvement within industry growth and industry structures distance from lobby organisations and PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultura l, 7(3). 2009 ISSN 1695-7121 398 The importance of lifestyle entrepreneurship ourism boards unwillingness to let go or to sell their ventures low innovation and unwillingness to cooperate (Weiermair, 2001). High dependency on distribution partners for their earnings- even when this is detrimental to profitability and competitiveness (Buhalis, 2000; Bastakis et al. , 2004) Questionable economic sustainability as a result of peripherally, distance from the economic core and sparseness of population (Nilsson et al. , 2005) Small tourism enterprise surveys show that the food and accommodation industry displays statistically significant lower survival rates than other branches of economic activity (Frank et al. , 1995). In particular, the first phases of enterprise growth are critical. The literature reports early stage management hurdles that lead to severe delegation and cash-flow problems (Flamholtz, 1990; Greiner, 1972). The rapid changes of the industry structures and the challenges emerging through globalization, competition, professionalism, industry concentration both vertical and horizontal, consumer rights and strict regulation mean that many lifestyle entrepreneurs are quite unprepared for the threats emerging from the external environment. Many of these enterprises notably in the food and accommodation industry, who survived their incubation period, are facing very serious strategic problems, and high levels of debt often leading to bankruptcy (Hartl, 1999; Tschurtschenthaler, 1996). In the fields of tourism research, entrepreneurship analysis is increasingly linked closely with research areas such as small tourism enterprises (Middleton, 2001; Morrison et al. , 2001; Fuchs et al. , 2002; Thomas, 2004) or family businesses in tourism (Getz and Petersen, 2004; Hegarty and Ruddy, 2004; Peters, 2004). Shaw and Williams (1998) have identified two different models of small business entrepreneurship: ‘non-entrepreneurship’ and ‘constrained entrepreneurs’. The first group show similarities with lifestyle entrepreneurship, as they have moved into tourism destinations for non-economic reasons; they have established enterprises (mainly with personal savings) and enjoy being their own boss. Many of these non-entrepreneurs constitute owners who have retired from former professions and perceive tourism and hosPASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural, 7(3). 2009 pitality SMEs as a way to enjoy nice destination whilst generating some income to sustain their lifestyle. Research in the UK support Shaw and Williams’ (1998) findings: e. g. Szivas (2001) has investigated motives of self-employed people in tourism. Their motives were centred around their desire ‘to work in pleasant surroundings’ and to ‘establish their own business’ [p. 168]. Shaw and Williams (1998) labelled this group of ageing owners ‘nonentrepreneurs’ because they showed a lack of business experience and strategic qualification (Carland et al. 1984). The second group of ‘constrained entrepreneurs’ constitute younger people with economic growth motives and former professional experience in tourism and other industries. Still they demonstrate man y lifestyle motives to explain their activities and the capital required is family raised. Nevertheless, they demonstrate some entrepreneurial attitudes towards innovation and product development, as well as towards customer values and needs (Shaw and Williams, 1998). Another interesting study on motivational structures of tourism entrepreneurs was carried out by Getz and Carlson (2000) who clustered two types of entrepreneurs in Australia. They labelled them ‘family-first’ (representing 2/3 of total entrepreneurs) and the ‘business first’ entrepreneurs. Family-driven entrepre-neurs are motivated by emotional factors associated with their families, as well as by the optimization of their leisure time. All these non-economic and non-growth oriented motives can be termed life-quality factors. Every entrepreneur is characterized by an individual trade-off between life-quality and workload. The perception of this relationship is a main driver of activity. The relationship of entrepreneurial workload and life-quality certainly depends upon personal wants and individual characteristics or personality traits (Marcketti et al. , 2006). As a result of the above discussed characteristics of lifestyle entrepreneurs, a number of propositions can be derived relating to the the relationship between life quality for entrepreneurs and enterprise profit (see figure 1). ISSN 1695-7121 Mike Peters ; Joerg Frehse and Dimitrios Buhalis 399 Profit/workload ratio quality of life D positive entrepreneurial effects on quality of life profit/workload B F1 F2 C basic quality of life quality of life A negative entrepreneurial effects on quality of life time optimal growth max. growth Figure 1. The trade-off between entrepreneurs’ life quality and enterprise profile. Source: based on Peters and Frehse [2004] The basic individual quality of life may decrease in the phase of establishing a new business. Leisure time is sinking; family needs cannot be easily addressed. Personal worries or financial risks lower the individual quality of life, which is determined by other than entrepreneurial factors (e. g. health, expectations, social status, values, etc. ). At later stages, harvesting the seeds of the new venture, life quality for entrepreneurs rise again and meet the profit curve at the point B, where the profit cannot be heightened without lowering personal quality of life. But still BC marks the positive entrepreneurial effects on individual quality of life, which occur as a consequence of the new venture. A lifestyle entrepreneur normally hinders growth when he/she recognises that life quality is decreasing. A number of interesting observations can be made: 1. A critical phase of entrepreneurship is the time of the start-up. Research has shown that many individual barriers occur which can lower the quality of life (Shaver et al. , 2001; Weiermair and Peters, 1998b). F1A marks the most critical phase of individual failure because the entrepreneur experiences decreasing quality of life and increasing workloads; i. e. the profit/workload ratio is very low. Afterwards, the entrepreneur recognises PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural, 7(3). 2009 an increase of both profit and quality of life and is motivated to reach point D. 2. Lifestyle entrepreneurs usually stop entrepreneurial activities at the time they recognize they have reached the maximum level of personal quality of life (B). If, due to time lags, lack of control mechanisms or market exit barriers, growth is continuing, entrepreneurs still face positive, but decreasing life quality effects of growth (BC). 3. It still remains unclear which variables constitute individual quality of life. However, there is a set of quality of life variables (F2B) which is generated or enhanced by enterprise growth. It can be assumed that income, prestige, social reputation or similar variables fall into this category of life quality for entrepreneurs. 4. Lifestyle entrepreneurs do not trace the path BD. Only growth oriented or Schumpeterian entrepreneurs will follow profit maximisation. The basic individual quality of life may decrease in the phase of establishing a new business. Leisure time is sinking; family needs cannot be easily addressed. Personal worries or financial risks lower the individual quality of life, which is determined by other than entrepreneurial factors (e. g. health, expectations, social status, values, ISSN 1695-7121 400 The importance of lifestyle entrepreneurship etc. ). At later stages, harvesting the seeds of the new venture, life quality for entrepreneurs rise again and meet the profit curve at the point B, where the profit cannot be heightened without lowering personal quality of life. But still BC marks the positive entrepreneurial effects on individual quality of life, which occur as a consequence of the new venture. A lifestyle entrepreneur normally hinders growth when he/she recognises that life quality is decreasing. A number of interesting observations can be made: 1. A critical phase of entrepreneurship is the time of the start-up. Research has shown that many individual barriers occur which can lower the quality of life (Shaver et al. , 2001; Weiermair and Peters, 1998b). F1A marks the most critical phase of individual failure because the entrepreneur experiences decreasing quality of life and increasing workloads; i. e. the profit/workload ratio is very low. Afterwards, the entrepreneur recognises an increase of both profit and quality of life and is motivated to reach point D. 2. Lifestyle entrepreneurs usually stop entrepreneurial activities at the time they recognize they have reached the maximum level of personal quality of life (B). If, due to time lags, lack of control mechanisms or market exit barriers, growth is continuing, entrepreneurs still face positive, but decreasing life quality effects of growth (BC). 3. It still remains unclear which variables constitute individual quality of life. However, there is a set of quality of life variables (F2B) which is generated or enhanced by enterprise growth. It can be assumed that income, prestige, social reputation or similar variables fall into this category of life quality for entrepreneurs. 4. Lifestyle entrepreneurs do not trace the path BD. Only growth oriented or Schumpeterian entrepreneurs will follow profit maximisation. The contribution of lifestyle entrepreneurs Despite the fact that lifestyle entrepreneurs do not follow economic motives, their contribution to economic welfare and customer satisfaction should not be underestimated (Weiermair and Peters, 1998a). In fact observing the tourism and leisure lifestyle entrepreneurs can enable other indusPASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural, 7(3). 2009 tries to learn transferable lessons. There are numerous reasons that underline the importance of lifestyle tourism/leisure entrepreneurs. Lifestyle entrepreneurs often get involved in business because they are experienced consumers, who either make a profession out of their hobby or seek customer solutions in the respective leisure or tourism industry. As in their eyes markets do not provide optimal customer oriented solutions, they decide to do this on their own (Williams et al. , 1989). Thus, many lifestyle entrepreneurs can be seen as lead users who can be important sources of product/service innovations (Herstatt et al. , 2001). ‘Real’ entrepreneurs often develop fruitful co-operations with those nongrowth oriented entrepreneurs, who provide ideas or uncover customer problems but are not able or not willing to transform this capital into a growing enterprise. Lifestyle entrepreneurs are not willing to put more effort into growth and do not want to sacrifice quality of life to profit maximisation. But in several cases, through governmental support in terms of tax reduction or enterprise support, additional enterprise growth could be achieved. However, many governmental support systems necessitate a high growth motivation of small business entrepreneurs (Nilsson et al. , 2005). Thus, in most cases the financial support is allocated on the condition that enterprises commit to growth objectives, which in reality do not positively influence lifestyle entrepreneurs. Recognising the entrepreneurial realities and motivations as well as designing policy measures that address the quality of life balance is thus paramount for those incentives to be effective. Perhaps governments need to put their effort in developing networks at the destination level that enable entrepreneurs to share resources and achieve economies of scope, rather than drive for growth. Improving quality of life can motivate entrepreneurs further and assist them to develop their interest in business and competitiveness. Conclusion The aim of the paper was to explore the concept of lifestyle entrepreneurship, using tourism as one of the most relevant industries to demonstrate its relevance. The paper demonstrated the relationship of the ISSN 1695-7121 Mike Peters ; Joerg Frehse and Dimitrios Buhalis 401 activities of lifestyle entrepreneurs and their perception of individual life quality. In many tourism regions entrepreneurship is characterized by incremental innovation or relative low entrepreneurial intensity. Although lifestyle entrepreneurs do not force radical innovations, they often serve as typical lead-users who explore new leisure activities, become first-users and later on first movers in specific leisure industries. For example many people who run, diving or extreme sports centres are themselves involved in these activities and are keen to experience their hobby through their work. As human beings, consumers and producers change in terms of their value system, quality of time and leisure time maximization. Hence it is increasingly evident in the marketplace that the tourism industry attracts both classical Schumpeterian entrepreneurs as well as lifestyle entrepreneurs who operate according to the personal lifestyle. Instead of internal growth, with all its negative effects on the life quality, external rowth through cooperation, clustering and/or strategic alliances should be incentivised to motivate entrepreneurs to reach D instead of B as demonstrated in Figure 1. Policy makers therefore need to provide a comprehensive framework that would support these processes, rather than encourage internal growth. However, in phase F1A many lifestyle entrepreneurs reconsider their efforts and withdraw from the market because they experience a steady decrease of quality of life. Here motivational support measures should include the provision of business advice and resources, whilst successful benchmarks may help entrepreneurs to overcome this critical phase. Potentially the development of regional clusters which pool together resources from several small businesses, development agencies and governmental organisations can assist governments at the national and regional level to support lifestyle entrepreneurs and to develop their collective competitiveness at the destination level. There are several challenges for social sciences researchers. First it remains unclear how the quality of life for entrepreneurs can be measured as well as what is the basic individual life quality. Research in the field of entrepreneurs’ satisfaction with their profession is still missing but needed to assess individual life quality effects of new ventures. In the field of leisure and tourism co-operation and coopetition are extremely important, as only clusters and/or strategic alliances can support the production of the increasingly complex tourism services and products required by consumers. Entrepreneurs may also profit from inter-organisational knowhow transfer (Matlay, 2003) and the mechanics of such transfer need to be further explored. However the vast majority of the entrepreneurs are independent minded and have difficulty in participating in clusters or accepting external advice. This applies particularly to lifestyle entrepreneurs who are not profit motivated. Hence, an interesting research agenda is what measures and policies can support life quality for entrepreneurs and how cooperation and clustering can enhance the collective regional competitiveness. 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The Tourist Review, 51(4): 24-41. Komppula, R. 2004 â€Å"Sucess and Growth in Rural Tourism Micro-Businesses in Finland: Financial or Life-Style Objectives? † in Thomas, R. (Ed. , Small Firms in Tourism. International Perspectives (pp. 115-138), Amsterdam et al. : Elsevier Science. Lazear, E. P. 2005 â€Å"Entrepreneurship†. Journal of Labor Economics 23 (4): 649–680. Leibenstein, H. 1966 â€Å"Allocative efficiency vs. Xefficiency†. American Economic Review, 56: 39 2-415. Leibenstein, H. 1968: â€Å"Entrepreneurship and Development†. American Economic Review, 58: 72-83. Liefmann, R. 1897 Die Unternehmerverbande, ihr Wesen und ihre Bedeutung. Freiburg: unknown. Low, M. B. and MacMillan, I. C. 1988 â€Å"Entrepreneurship: Past Research and Future Challenges†. Journal of Management, 14(2): 39-161. Marcketti, S. B. and Niehm, L. S. and Fuloria, R. 006 â€Å"An exploratory study of lifestyle entrepreneurship and its relationship to life quality†. Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal, 34(3): 241259. Matlay, H. 2003 â€Å"Education, training and learning in SMEs: an international perspective†. Education and Training, 45(8/9): 427429. McClelland, D. C. 1961 The Achieving Society. Princton: Van Nostrand. Middleton, V. 2001 â€Å"The importance of micro-businesses in European tourism†, in: Roberts, L. and Hall, D. (Eds), Rural Tourism and Recreation Principles to Practice (pp. 197–201). Wallingford, Oxo n: CABI. Miner, J. B. 1997 A psychological typology of successful entrepreneurs. Westport Conn. et al. : Quorum Books. Mises, L. Von 1940 Nationalokonomie-Theorie des Handelns und Wirtschaftens, Genf Reprint: Munchen 1980. Morris, M. H. and Lewis, P. S. 1995 â€Å"The determinants of entrepreneurial activity. Implications for marketing†. European Journal of Marketing, 29(7): 31-48. Morrison, A. 2006 â€Å"A Contextualisation of Entrepreneurship†. International Morrison, A. and Thomas, R. 1999 â€Å"The future of small firms in the hospitality industry†. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour and Research, 12(4): 192-209. Morrison, A. and Rimmington, M. and Williams, C. 1998 Entrepreneurship in the Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure Industries, Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Morrison, A. J. and Baum. T. and Andrew, R. 001 â€Å"The lifestyle economics of small tourism businesses†. Journal of Travel and Tourism Research, 1(1-2): 16–25. Mugler, J. 1998 Betriebswirtschaftslehre der Kleinund Mittelbetriebe, Band I. Wien, New York: Springer, Nilsson, P. A. and Petersen, T and Wanhill, S 2005 â€Å"Public support for tourism SMEs in peripheral areas: The Arjeplog project, northern Sweden†. The Service Industries Journal, 25(4): 579 – 599. Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 11(4): 148-154. PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural, 7(3). 2009 ISSN 1695-7121 404 The importance of lifestyle entrepreneurship Oberparleiter, K. 1930 Funktionen- und Risikenlehre des Warenverkehrs, 1st edition. Berlin (2nd edition: Funktionen und Risiken des Warenhandels, Vienna 1955) Papandreou, A. 1952 â€Å"Some Basic Problems in the Theory of the Firm†, in: Haley, B. , A Survey of Contemporary Economics (pp. 183-222). Illinois: American Economic Association. Paraskevas, A. and Buhalis, D. 2002 â€Å"Information Communication Technologies decision-making: The ASP Outsourcing Model from the Small Hotel The Owner/Manager Perspective†. Peters, M. and Frehse, J. 2004 â€Å"The Importance of Lifestyle Entrepreneurship in the Tourism and Leisure Industry: Lessons from the Past and Implications for The Future†. 2nd Shaver, K. G. and Gartner, W. B. and Crosby, E. and Bakalarova, K. and Gatewood, E. J. 001 â€Å"Attributions About Entrepreneurship: A Framework and Process for Analyzing Reasons for Starting a Business†, Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 26(2): 5-32. Shaw, G. and Williams, A. M. 1990 â€Å"Tourism economic development and the role of entrepreneurial activity†. In Cooper, C. P. (Ed. ), Progress in Tourism, Recreation and Hospitality Management (pp. 67-81). Vol. 2,. Bellhaven, London. Shaw, G. and Williams, A. M. 1998 â€Å"Entrepreneurship, small business culture and tourism development†. In Ioannides, D. and Debbage, K. G. (Eds. ), Cornell Hotel Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 43(2): 27-39. The Economic Geography of the Tourist (pp. 235-255). London: Industry Routledge. Shaw, G. and Williams, A. M. 003 â€Å"Entrepreneurial cultures and small business enterprises in tourism†, in Hall, M. and Lew, A. and Williams, A. (Eds. ), Blackwells companion to tourism geography, (pp. unknown). Oxford: Blackwell. Shaw, G. and Williams, A. M. 2004 â€Å"From Lifestyle Consumption to Lifestyle Production: Changing Patterns of Tourism Entrepreneurship†, in Thomas, R. (Ed. ), Small Firms in Tourism: International Perspectives, (pp. 99-113). Amsterdam:. Elsevier. Singh, J. , and Lumsden, C. 1990 â€Å"Theory and research in organizational ecology†. Annual Review of Sociology, 16: 161–195. Swedberg, R. 2000 Entrepreneurship: The social science view. New York: Oxford University Press. Szivas, E. 001 â€Å"Entrance into tourism entrepreneurship: A UK case study†, Tourism and Hospitality Research, 3(2): 163-172. Thomas, R. (Ed. ) 2004 Small Firms in Tourism. Amsterdam: Elsevier Thomas, R. 1998 The Management of Small Tourism and Hospitality Firms. London: Cassell. Bolzano, Italy. Peters, M. and Weiermair, K. 2001 â€Å"The Schumpeterian Entrepreneur and the Entrepreneurial Culture: Half a Century Later†. In Orati, V. and Dahiya, S. B. (Eds. ), Economic Theory in the Light of Schumpeter (pp. 301-314). Spellbound, Rotak. Peters, M. 2004 â€Å"Business Planning Behaviour in Tourism Family Enterprises†. The Poznan University of Economics Review, 4(1): 74-86. Sawyer, J. E. 1952 â€Å"Entrepreneurial Error and Economic Growth†. Explorations in Entrepreneurial History, 4(1): 199-204. Schneider, D. 2001 â€Å"Der Unternehmer-eine Leerstelle in der Theorie der Unternehmung? † Zeitschrift fur Betriebswirtschaft, 2001(1). (Special edition): 1-8. Schmitz, J. A. 1989 â€Å"Imitation, Entrepreneurship, and Long-Run Growth†. The Journal of Political Economy, 97(3): 721-739. Schumpeter, J. A. (1934) The Theory of Economic Development. New York: Oxford Univ. Press. PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural, 7(3). 2009 International Conference ‘Leisure Futures 2004, 10. -11. November, ISSN 1695-7121 Mike Peters ; Joerg Frehse and Dimitrios Buhalis 405 Thomas, R. 2000 â€Å"Small firms in the tourism industry: some conceptual issues†. International Journal of Tourism Research, 2(5): 345 – 353. Timmons, J. A. 1994 New Venture Creation: Entrepreneurship for the 21st Century. Boston: Irwin McGraw-Hill. Tschurtschenthaler, P. 1996) â€Å"Die wirtschaftliche Bedeutung des Tourismus†, in Weiermair, K. and Peters, M. and Schipflinger, M. (Eds. ), AlInnsbruck: Studia. Weber, M. 1935 The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. New York: Scribner. Weiermair, K. and Peters, M. 1998a â€Å"Entrepreneurial Small- and Medium Sized Tourism Enterprises†, in Chon, K. S. (Ed. ), Tourism and Hotel Industry in pine Tourism: Sustainability- Reconsidered and Redesigned, (pp. 54-79). Hilton College. Weiermair, K. and Peters, M. 998b â€Å" The internationalization behaviour of service enterprises†. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 2(2): 1-14. Weiermair, K. 2001 â€Å"The Growth of Tourism Enterprises†. Tourism Review, 56(3/4): 17-25. Williams, A. M. and Shaw, G. and Greenwood, J. 1989 à ¢â‚¬Å"From tourist to tourism entrepreneur, from consumption to production: Evidence from Cornwall, England†. 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Analysis Of The Play Death Of A Salesman - 1041 Words

Research paper for â€Å"Death of a Salesman† In the play â€Å"death of a salesman† by author miller, the dramatist focuses on the theme of â€Å"the American dream†. Lowman, a botched salesman, is the protagonist of the play. Willy is certain that society only has room for winners. In support of this, the play’s theme demonstrates how a victim of â€Å"the American dream† can be destroyed by fabricated promises that will impact not only â€Å"business life but will conflict with personal relationships as well† (Elwell 1).The significance of this theme is still very relevant to many societies today. Therefore, Miller based his play off on his life through the way he suffered and conquered, on his family conflicts, and dreams of success. An insight into miller’s background will afford a variety of his life and accomplishments. Miller was the second child of Isidore and Augusta Miller. â€Å"Arthur Asher Miller was born 17 October 1915 in Manhattan† (clifnotes1). Both of miller’s parents were Jewish immigrants from Poland. Miller’s father, Isidoer, did his greatest to achieve the American dream and possessed a clothing company. â€Å"In October 1929, just a few weeks after Arthur s fourteenth birthday, the stock market crashed† (Thou 1). Having capitalized nearly all his money in the market, the miller’s family had lost their wealth. Furthermore, â€Å"He (miller) graduated from Abraham Lincoln High School in 1932† (Matur 310). After graduating from high school, Miller worked in a warehouse while attending nightShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of The Play Death Of A Salesman 954 Words   |  4 Pages Darrian Dowden AP English IV Death of a Salesman Written Assignment Death of a Salesman Character Analysis 1.Willy Loman. Although the main protagonist of the play, Willy Loman does not come to a certain self-realization. Searching and sifting through his memories (which cannot be completely taken as the truth as he reinvents them in a way to make them out as a golden era) he fails to recognize his slanted reality he’s lived in made up of his delusions. His forged relationship withRead MoreAnalysis Of The Play Death Of A Salesman Essay1739 Words   |  7 PagesTheatrical writing is no exception. In the play Death of a Salesman the protagonist is not necessarily the main character. The protagonist in this play is the main character’s son Biff. However, in the play Cat on a Hot Tin Roof it is harder to determine if the protagonist is Brick or Maggie, but I believe Brick is the main protagonist. In the play Dutchman it is quite the opposite and the protagonist, Clay, is very clearly emphasized. These three plays and their respective protagonists are all goodRead MoreAnalysis Of The Pl ay Death Of A Salesman By Arthur Miller1612 Words   |  7 Pages Selling More Than Just Merchandise The play, Death of a Salesman, by Arthur Miller explores topics that are parallel to the lives of the common man. This makes his play relevant during many different eras, as the central issues discussed correlate with struggles of everyday common people, no matter at what point in history the play is shown. This makes his play very versatile in nature as it can be shown throughout the decades. His play can be considered a classic story; one that cannot be forgottenRead MoreWilly from Death of a Salesman by Arthur Miller: Abandoned and Flawed798 Words   |  4 Pages The dramatic play Death of a Salesman, composed by Arthur Miller in 1949 portrays the hours leading up to Willy Loman’s death. 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Lee Siegel, a writer for The Nation explains the role of Death of a Salesman in the entertainment industry: Every ten years or so, Death of a Salesman is revived, and every ten years we get theRead MoreComparing Death of a Salesman by Arthur Miller and Fences by August Wilson 1403 Words   |  6 PagesFences written by August Wilson and Death of a Salesman written by Arthur Miller are two plays that could be considered very different in terms of their plot. The plots of both plays contain two very different cultural backgrounds which affects each protagonist differently. If the reader or audience looks past the plot into the theme and symbolisms used they can see that the plays are more similar than they are different. In spite of the different cultural backgrounds of each protagonist they bothRead More Death of a Salesman is a Tragedy as Defined in Millers Tragedy and the Common Man1046 Words   |  5 PagesDeath of a Salesman is a Tragedy as Defined in Millers Tragedy and the Common Man In Tragedy and the Common Man, Arthur Miller discusses his definition and criteria for tragedy as they apply to the common man. The criteria and standards proposed by Miller may be used to evaluate his timeless work, Death of A Salesman. The first major standard of tragedy set forth is:   â€Å"...if the exaltation of tragic action were truly a property of the high-bred character alone, it is inconceivable thatRead MoreWilly Loman, the Modern Hero in Arthur Millers Death of a Salesman1739 Words   |  7 Pagesheroes, otherwise known as the protagonists, illustrated by tragic Greek playwrights, were never normal people. All heroes were citizens of high class, such as princes. This was due in part because plays were seen as a luxury for refined citizens. Aristocratic citizens did not want to pay to watch plays about the peasants of society. They wanted to relate to the characters; therefore, all heroes of Greek tragedy were elite members of society. An additional distinguishing factor of the Greek heroesRead MoreThemes Of Death Of A Salesman1286 Words   |  6 PagesA Blanketed Illusion Death of a Salesman is a tragicomedy centered on the events that take place at the end of Willy Loman’s life. From the opening act, we learn that Willy and his family struggle to behave as a united front when they face financial pressures and strained familial bonds. This causes Willy to become desperate for success and validation. Death of a Salesman has commonly been interpreted as an analysis of the American dream. Within the ideal American society, citizens believe that theRead MoreEssay about The American Dream in Death of a Salesman1371 Words   |  6 PagesArthur Miller’s ‘Death of a Salesman’ is an examination of American life and consumerism. It relates the story of a common man who portrays this lifestyle. Other issues explored in the play include: materialism, procrastination and alienation. The play was set in 1948, in a time where The American Dream was highly regarded, despite the Depression. The American Dream was a belief that emerged in th e later half of the nineteenth century, that if you work hard you will achieve success and prosperity

Stages Of Liberalism And Federalism - 1833 Words

Political Science 155 Essay Question There are various stages to both liberalism and federalism. Liberalism is an ideology that stresses the rights individuals have and is the most prominent belief system in the United States. Dr. Guevara explains in her first lecture that the liberalism ideology has four stages, each underscoring the common concerns and agendas of their times. First is Classical Liberalism, most known for being heavily influenced by thinkers of the Enlightenment such as John Locke, Thomas Hobbes, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. The founding fathers, concerned with their civil liberties, posed the question of â€Å"How do you frame a government that will protect your life, liberty and property?† which they answered with: limited†¦show more content†¦Federalism has been around for nearly as long as liberalism, existing in two main, functioning forms. Federalism is the division of people’s sovereignty between different levels of government. Federalism in the United States has existed as either dual or cooperative, both defining the different levels of involvement between the levels of government. Dual Federalism, as defined by Scott F. Abernathy in American Government: Stories of a Nation, â€Å"[divides] the people’s sovereignty between the nation and the states – they [are] coequals in power, each able to check the power and growth of the other.† This model of federalism was the first used by the U.S. and was seen to be heavily connected with Classical Liberalism due to the nation’s original, disconnected roots, which would come to change during the New Deal Liberalism period. On the contrary side, cooperative federalism is a system in which â€Å"both levels work together in the same areas of public policy.† (Abernathy) Rather than working separately yet equally, the national and state governments both use the powers they have in order to work towards a common goal, typically seen in times o f crisis as states can’t handle the situations on their own and reach out and work with the national government in order to heal. My thesis is that liberalism and federalism overlap whenever one part of government attemptsShow MoreRelatedAmerican Government Study Guide.1562 Words   |  7 Pagesconcerns, power in the Congress is widely dispersed. The second most powerful person in Washington, D.C. (after the president) is often said to be the speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives. According to Theodore Lowis theory of interest-group liberalism, the effect of groups on policy constitutes a partial and wrongful abdication by government of its authority over policy, results in a system of rule by minorities rather than by a majority, results in an inefficient use of societys resources. Read MoreUsa And Texas Political Culture1766 Words   |  8 PagesUSA and Texas political culture can be described fully by understanding in detail of classical liberalism, social conservatism and populism. Classical liberalism allow an individual to use primary social value of liberty in the political culture that extent until liberties of the others disturbed. Classical liberal ideas often form the basis for opposition to the use of government to attain social and personal objectives. They stress reliance on private the free market to determine the best outcomesRead MoreImpact of the World Trade Organizations on Democratic Politics2915 Words   |  12 Pagesenhances or detracts from societies democratic politics. This will be brought out by emphasizing on the neo-liberalism approach that will help analyze the effects of World Trade Organization on the democratic politics within the society. It will discuss different perspectives that have occurred over the issue and part of it will take a comprehensive side regarding the issue. To start with, neo-liberalism entails varying forms and objectives where it’s most ambitious part involves trying to effect a transitionRead MorePluralism and Public Choice2968 Words   |  12 Pagesbecome a Federation, while a more unified body of people might produce a unitary system of government that centralises power in one body (US Department of State 2006). Particularly common when several independent states are geographically joined, Federalism is a way of organising a nation so that regional sovereign states retain their identity within the greater national system. Effectively two or more levels of government have formal authority over the same area and the populace are citizens of bothRead MoreBritain’s Support for Widening but NOT Deepening the European Union2076 Words   |  9 PagesFinally, I argue that the neoliberal position, which has often been in contradiction to the exceptionalist discourse, has led to a compromise, an intergovernmental Europe that supports expansion as a vehicle for the spread of economic and political Liberalism, particularly eastward, into the former Soviet states. One of the central themes of the EU debate revolves around the issue of national sovereignty. 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Previously researchers have focused on different aspects of politicalRead MoreEssay on The French Revolution6694 Words   |  27 Pages even royalst , forces to stay inpower - They therefore, accused them of supporting couter-revolution - As neither side had the majority in the Assembly each needed to have the support of the Plain - They too were bourgeois, blieved in economic liberalism and were deeply afraid of the popular movement - At first supported the Girondins, who provided most of the ministers and dominated mnost of the Assemblys committees SEPTEMBER MASSACRES - August the situation of the French armies on the fronttierRead More The Government Struggle to Combat Identity Theft Essay4278 Words   |  18 PagesWhereas computers and technology have helped thieves gain an extra edge, the government attacked the problem from a traditional point of view. As the forefather of identity theft legislation, The Identity Theft and Assumption Deterrence Act set the stage for forthcoming proposals. Yet it also symbolized many of the problems that would afflict future legislative initiatives. III. Enforcement: Where Are the Tools? Understandably, Congress still relies on law enforcement to undercut identity theftRead MoreNationalism and Transnationalism in the Context of the European Union28567 Words   |  115 Pages‘nation’ is possible to emerge or not. Then, it is essential to define the aspects which the paper will explore. 1.1. Defining Nation The history of nation formation is not a closed chapter in world history. Every nation has had different stages and moments of coming to self-awareness and manifesting their national personality. Looking at the world today and its history one could distinguish the ‘old’ nations from the relatively ‘young’ ones. 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Essay on Compulsive Hoarding and Dr. Randy Frost - 803 Words

Hoarding is defined as the acquirement of, and inability to discard worthless items even though they appear to have no value. Hoarding behaviors can occur in a variety of psychiatric disorders and in the normal population, but are most commonly found in people with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Those people who report compulsive hoarding as their primary type of OCD, who experience significant distress or functional impairment from their hoarding, and who also have symptoms of indecisiveness, procrastination, and avoidance, are classified as having compulsive hoarding syndrome (www.ocfoundation.com). An estimated 700,000 to 1.4 million people in the United States are thought to have compulsive hoarding syndrome. Compulsive hoarding is†¦show more content†¦They diagnose the compulsive hoarding syndrome according to three criterions. First, the accumulation of useless possessions and failure to discard them can be a sign of the disorder. Compulsive hoarders have an obsessive need to accumulate and save many objects, and also have a tremendous anxiety about throwing them away. This is because of a supposed need for the objects and their value or an unnecessary emotional attachment to them. If they have any doubt at all about the value of an object, compulsive hoarders will keep it, â€Å"just in case† (www.rd.com). A Second criterion, according to Dr. Randy Frost, is living spaces of the person are so cluttered that the rooms cannot be used for their original design. For example, one cannot use the toilet because items are stored in it. Obviously, with lots of items coming into the home and very few going out, the clutter will accumulate. It does not take long for the clutter to start spreading onto the floors, counter tops, hallways, stairwells, even to the garage. Beds become so cluttered that there is no room to sleep. Kitchen counters become so cluttered that food cannot be prepared. For many hoarders, it gets to a point where there might be only a narrow pathway that connects each room, and the rest of the house is piled several feet high with clutter. This clutter can not only be a hindrance, but can also be very dangerous. The dust, mildew, mold, and rat droppings commonly found in extreme clutter can irritateShow MoreRelatedHoarding Is a Real Disorder Suffered by Real People Essay2403 Words   |  10 PagesMany people know the television shows, Hoarding: Buried Alive, on TLC or Hoarders on AE. These reality TV shows feature hoarders and their families. The crews of the shows follow the hoarder for a few days to study how hoarding affects their daily lives. A professional organizer and a therapist are taken through the house to see what the hoarder collects. The houses are disgusting; many times, there are rodents, cockroaches, stacks of paper and garbage everywhere. The audience is shown interviewsRead MoreOcd - Symptoms, Causes, Treatment131367 Words   |  526 Pages978-1-59385-375-4 (paperback) 1. Cognitive therapy. 2. Obsessive–compulsive disorder. I. Title. RC489.C63C57 2004 616.85†²2270651—dc22 2003020283 To my parents, Albert and Ardith, for their support and encouragement About the Author About the Author David A. Clark, PhD, is a professor in the Department of Psychology, University of New Brunswick, Canada. He received his PhD from the Institute of Psychiatry, University of London, England. Dr. Clark has published numerous articles on cognitive theory

Literature Review of the Mitigation Theory Essay - 1963 Words

Literature Review: The literature review is exceptionally significant in regard to understanding the concepts and theoretical ideas in regard to the securitisation of migration literature. With attention being centred on migration and security theory, especially in regard to recent literature, the basis for our argument will be established, and will continually be seeking to find any features that have been overlooked. The following chapters define what ‘securitisation’ entails, and gives a deep insight into the literature that debates its presence and then acknowledges the limitations of academic works pertained to the topic. 2.1 Migration Theory â€Å"The threat of migration is fundamentally a question of how relative numbers interact†¦show more content†¦Not only has migration become ‘the new focus for insecurity’ (Waever, 1994, p. 34) it has apparently brought with it a diverse range of problems that have allegedly ‘flooded’ Europe in the past fifteen years. With 9/11 being a subsequent reason for this threat and cause of concern, the issue of migration has escalated to such a great extent that within literature, it has â€Å"opened up a number of discursive opportunities to associate terrorism with immigration, therefore framing the issue in such a way that immigrants are categorised as posing an existential threat†(Boswell, 2010, p. 2). In order to understand why migration is apparently being securitised we must understand the essence of the problem of migration altogether. It can be portrayed that to some that it is a result of governments who have lost an insurmountable control of UK border policies in the past fifteen years whilst others claim it is because it ‘became more prominent since the violent attacks in the US on 11 September 2001’ ( Huysmans, 2006, p. 2) Undoubtedly it is a common occurrence and widespread theory to many that 9/11 provided an opportunity, or even a scapegoat, for the securitization of migration (Boswell, 2010, p. 4) and discussions on securitization. In order to gain a better understanding, it is integral to theShow MoreRelatedRisk Mitigation Plan For The Same Project905 Words   |  4 PagesTo calculate risk factor/Probability of occurrence risk exposure for the same project 4. To Identify the relevant stakeholder for the same project 5. To Develop Implement Risk Mitigat ion Plan for the same project 6. To Develop Risk Contingency Plan for the same project Problem Statement (including Literature Review) The most common risk management challenge is that risks are not properly identified. Project Managers and team members will frequently identify conditions, symptoms, events, and /Read MoreOcean Iron Fertilization By Oceanographer John Martin1699 Words   |  7 Pagesthe rise and the effects of global warming becoming increasingly devastating, it is imperative now more than ever that every mitigation strategy be thoroughly explored. Although ocean iron fertilization may seem like a fairly simple method of sequestering carbon dioxide, there is in fact a plethora of issues linked to this mitigation strategy. The aim of this literature review is to examine and analyze some of the aspects that make ocean iron fertilization such a controversial method of carbon sequestrationRead MoreThe Extent to which Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) Can Contribute towards Mitigation and Adaptation to Climate Change Futures1062 Words   |  5 Pagesnature as whole according to the recent projec tions (IPCC 2013; Bondeau et al. 2013). This anticipated hazard is unavoidable to some extent though the source of the problem (‘green house gas’ emission) is barred right now (IPCC 2014a). Combination of mitigation (reducing or capturing GHG) and adaptation effort has been suggested both in the short and long term to achieve the complementary advantage (i.e. cost) and to reduce the risk (IPCC 2014a; 2014b). Transportation, residential and business energyRead MoreBanking Regulation Basel II1533 Words   |  7 PagesProcyclicality in minimum regulatory capital charges for credit risk There is a vast amount of literature available on the additional procyclicality of regulatory capital charges in Pillar 1 of Basel II. In this section, we shall briefly visit this literature and see if any conclusions can be drawn from this, before proceeding to the conclusion and mitigation of these procyclical effects. The majority of the literature, as expected, focuses primarily on the IRB approach, as this aspect of Basel II has drawnRead MoreTerrorism And International Business Research1130 Words   |  5 Pagesheightening implications for both theory and practice. This research paper is a novel exploratory study of how international businesses apply past terrorism exposure and experience from operating in risky locations to create organizational preparedness and performance resilience to endure future terrorist attacks. The unique firm level research provides a theoretical contribution by building upon n the literature calling from Vogus and Sutcliffe, (2007) for developing a theory of organizational resilienceRead MoreThe Emergency Management Planning Process1305 Words   |  6 Pagesto a vision and goal, information collection or fact base, mitigation, response and recovery strategies. The emergency manager is critically to disaster relief as they are responsible for the implementation, monitoring and evaluation of all disaster relief plan. This paper will discuss the six steps in the emergency management planning process. 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HITT Mays College of Business, Texas AM University S. TREVIS CERTO Mays College of Business, Texas AM University CATHERINE M. DALTON Kelley School of Business, Indiana University Abstract A central tenet of agency theory is that there is potential for mischief when the interests of owners andRead MoreThe Theories Of Risk Communications1205 Words   |  5 PagesTheories of Risk Communications: Part 2 This is a review of Sellnow Seeger (2013) chapters five, six, and seven of the course reading utilizing outside materials to provide support. The paper will address chaos theory and coordination theory, their use and their role in emergency communication. Community resilience will be reviewed and its importance examined. News framing theory s role in crisis communication will be evaluated and uses and gratifications theory will be explained. 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The Death Penalty Should Be Abolished - 2007 Words

Albert Einstein, a physicist and philosopher of science, â€Å"once said, no problem can be solved with the same level of thinking that created it† (Einstein). The intelligent man expressed his ideas clearly that if a killer kills someone and we also kill the killer then what would be the difference between us and the killer because we both are killers. The Death penalty was influenced by Britain. The practice was brought by European settlers for practice in U.S. The first recorded execution in the new colonies was Captain George Kendall in the Jamestown colony of Virginia in 1608. Kendall was executed for being a spy for Spain (â€Å"Part I†). According to the Death Penalty Information Center, 31 States in the United States allow the death penalty and 19 states do not allow the death penalty (â€Å"Deterrence†). The death penalty should be abolished in our society because it is not an effective crime deterrent, it puts a strain on our economy, it may result in t he loss of innocent lives, and it promotes racial discrimination. According to Amnesty International Organization, as of July 2015, 101 countries have abolished the death penalty for all crimes in law, while 140 countries still have death penalty in law or practice. The United States is one of the countries in worldwide that still uses the death penalty. In the US, more than 3,200 people live on death row. Since 1976, when the death penalty was restored, more than 1,200 people were executed in the United States. More thanShow MoreRelatedThe Death Penalty Should Be Abolished1192 Words   |  5 PagesNo Death Penalty Capital crime is something that is meant for people that are found guilty of committing a serious crime, such as murder, rape, or theft. These are offences that should not be taken lightly but by killing the offender, the government is carrying about the action that they are trying to prevent. Also, the wrong person may be sentenced to death. After this person is executed, there is obviously nothing that can be done for the terrible mistake to be reversed. The death penalty shouldRead MoreShould The Death Penalty Be Abolished?. The Death Penalty982 Words   |  4 PagesShould the death penalty be abolished? The death penalty is a â€Å"term that applies to capital punishment and is the worst penalty given for committing a murder or an atrocious assault.† (Black s Law Dictionary). Death penalty has been a part of human society and is legally approved for centuries. The first established death penalty laws date as far back as the Eighteenth Century B.C. in the Code of King Hammaurabi of Babylon, which codified the death penalty for 25 different crimes. Death sentencesRead MoreShould The Death Penalty Be Abolished?1925 Words   |  8 Pages Abstract This paper explores five published articles that report on discussion on the very old and yet to answer question of whether the death penalty in the USA should be abolished? The articles, however, vary in their stand on death penalty. In all article it is very different on publisher stand. They discuss thing argument with their own way and vision of thinking. Adina Nicoleta (2011) has raised question for fair trial on the proceeding of the criminal cases. In other article Maestro MarcelloRead MoreThe Death Penalty Should Be Abolished1534 Words   |  7 PagesIntro The death penalty gives humans in our legal system rights to decide who deserves to live, a power only God should possess. Capital Punishment takes away our rights as equals. From its origins, the death penalty has been an inhumane, costly, ineffective, and biased form of punishment that needs to be abolished granting everyone their right to live. History of the Death Penalty Down through history, the death penalty has been adapted to be justifiable in the eyes of the people. By alteringRead MoreThe Death Penalty Should Be Abolished1523 Words   |  7 Pagescriminals has been performed by nearly every society to date. The death penalty came to the Americas when European settlers brought the idea of capitol punishment from Britain. The ideology behind taking someone’s life for crimes they have committed is a simple one. If a person commits a hennas crime such as murder or rape, they shall receive the death penalty. In more recent times we now see many countries abolishing the death penalty. The trend suggests that the capitol punishment policies still implementedRead MoreThe Death Penalty Should Be Abolished1306 Words   |  6 Pageschanged since the 17th century, so why not the age old penalty of death? Capital punishment in the United States is a highly debated topic. Arguments that want to get rid of this method of punishment usually mention th e many problems that capital punishment is plagued with. The death penalty has many issues that cannot be resolved, and since these issues can’t be solved, the death penalty should be abolished. â€Å"The irrevocable nature of the death penalty renders it an unsustainable and indefensible remedyRead MoreThe Death Penalty Should Be Abolished1440 Words   |  6 PagesThe death penalty is a very controversial topic in the United States. It is implemented for the purpose of providing safety to the community and bringing justice to victims and their families. The death penalty is legal in thirty-one states (â€Å"31 States†), and there are over forty different types of federal capital crimes that are eligible for the death penalty. These include crimes such as treason and kidnapping that results in murder (â€Å"41 Federal†). However, many argue whether the death penalty isRead MoreThe Death Penalty Should Be Abolished968 Words   |  4 PagesEvery year, thousands of lives are legally taken under the death penalty. Why should we take more lives than the ones that have already been taken? The death penalty is the punishment of execution, carried out legally against an individual convicted of a capital crime. Its proponents argue that the death penalty deters other criminals who may intend to commit similar crimes in the future. However, there is little statistical evidence to support this claim. Also, execution eliminates the criminalRead MoreShould The Death Penalty Be Abolished?1350 Words   |  6 PagesShould the death penalty be abolished? The death penalty, also known as capital punishment is a legal procedure in which a state executes a person for crimes he/she has committed. This punishment has been used by many states, and is normally used for serious crimes, especially murder. It is also used on crimes against the state such as treason, crimes against humanity, espionage, and violent crimes while other states use it as part of military justice. There are mixed reactions on capital punishmentRead MoreShould The Death Penalty Be Abolished?1443 Words   |  6 Pages 6 Should the Death Penalty Be Abolished in the United States? Adalynne Francis CRJU 1000 Dr. Huss November 14, 14 Should capital punishment/ death penalty be abolished in the United States? Many feel that the death penalty is immoral and question whether the state and federal government deserve the right to kill those whom it has imprisoned. On the other hand, those opposed feel that by not acting upon the death penalty communities would plunge in anarchy and that by

HIV Pandemic free essay sample

We are entering the third decade of what may be the most devastating epidemic in human history: HIV/AIDS. The HIV/AIDS Pandemic is a large-scale epidemic affecting more than one country. AIDS was first clinically diagnosed in the early 1980s but retrospective diagnosis suggests it existed well before this date. AIDS is a syndrome, which develops from an impaired ability to fight diseases. It undermines the body’s defenses against viruses, infections and malignancies. Here, we describe the origins and evolution of these viruses, and the circumstances that led to the AIDS pandemic. Pandemic Assignment Since scientists identified the HIV as the cause of AIDS in 1983, it has spread insistently, causing one of the most harmful pandemics ever recorded in human history. However, concerted global efforts to fight the pandemic are making a significant difference. More than nine million people living with HIV in low and middle-income countries now have access to life-saving antiretroviral treatments. We will write a custom essay sample on HIV Pandemic or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Overview Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) invades the body through the exchange of certain body fluids. The virus invades cells such as T helper cells and begins to replicate itself in the human body. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) of humans is caused by two lentiviruses, â€Å"HIV-1 and HIV-2; HIV-1 accounts for the majority of infections in the world, and has at least 10 genetic subtypes† (Lamptey, Wigley, Carr, Collymore, 2002). Both HIVs are the result of multiple cross-species transmissions of simian immunodeficiency viruses (SIVs) naturally infecting African primates. However, as according to Sharp Hahn (2011), one transmission event, involving SIVcpz from chimpanzees in southeastern Cameroon, gave rise to HIV-1 group M—the principal cause of the AIDS pandemic† and noted that by â€Å"tracing the genetic changes that occurred as SIVs crossed from monkeys to apes and from apes to humans†. AIDS Pandemic and the Efforts to Stop HIV/AIDS According to Merson â€Å"on June 5, 1981, few suspected a pandemic of AIDS when the Centers for Disease Control reported five cases of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP) in young homosexual men in Los Angeles† (2006). Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR) reported that all the men had other unusual infections as well, indicating that their immune systems were not working; two had already died by the time the report was published. In a timeline created by AIDS. com, â€Å"this edition of the MMWR marks the first official reporting of what will become known as the AIDS epidemic† (2014). Although â€Å"after pandemic HIV-1 first emerged in colonial west central Africa, it spread for some 50 to 70 years before it was recognized† (Sharp Hahn, 2011) because phylogenetic and statistical analyses have dated the last common ancestor of HIV-1 to around 1910 to 1930. For a while the American government completely ignored the emerging AIDS pandemic. The first attempt to treat HIV was in â€Å"September 1986, when early results from clinical trials involving AZT (zidovudine) – a drug that was first investigated as a cancer treatment – showed that it might slow the attack of HIV† (AVERT, 2013). Although AZT could slow progression to AIDS in HIV positive individuals with no symptoms, a year’s supply for each person would cost around seven-thousand dollars and many did not have adequate health insurance to cover the cost. In 1995, â€Å"FDA announced that the drug 3TC (lamivudine) had been approved for use in combination with AZT in treating AIDS and HIV† (AVERT, 2013) after a number of studies had shown that HIV could quickly become resistant to AZT and that the drug had no benefit for those in the early stages of the disease. On April 5th 1990 Ryan White, schoolboy who had become infected with HIV via a blood transfusion for his haemophilia, died. He was known for his fight to return to public school after he was banned due to fears of spreading of AIDS to other children. â€Å"Following Ryan’s death, the American government implemented a new programme named after him – the Ryan White Comprehensive AIDS Resources Emergency (CARE) Act† (AVERT, 2013). Its aim was to improve the quality and availability of care for low-income, uninsured and underinsured individuals and families affected by HIV. In 2000, the government funded programs such as needle exchange services and abstinence-only education and in 2001 the Centers of Disease Control (CDC) set a goal to halve the number of people infected with HIV each year in the USA to 20,000 by the end of 2005 but by 2003 it was already clear that the CDC’s goal would be missed, the number of new infections had shown no sign of declining. In 2006, President Bush signed the reauthorisation of the Ryan White HIV/AIDS Program, â€Å"since its creation in 1990 the program had provided federal funding for thousands of Americans living with HIV/AIDS unable to pay for their treatment themselves† (AVERT, 2013). In 2007, raltegravir – was approved by the FDA which according to AVERT â€Å"Raltegravir was the first of a new class called integrase inhibitors† and â€Å"the significant progress in treatment proved to be particularly important to thousands of HIV positive Americans whose treatment had been failing due to drug resistance (2013). It was believed to provide extended years of meaningful survival to patients. In July 2010, â€Å"the USAs first HIV/AIDS Strategy was released† (The White House Office of National AIDS Policy, 2010) and reducing new HIV infections was included as one of the Strategys three core aims. According to AVERT (2013), â€Å"in order to reduce new infections without an increase in funding, the Strategy recommended that HIV prevention efforts be intensified in the communities where HIV is the most heavily concentrated†. MedlinePlus concluded that â€Å"there is no cure or vaccine to prevent HIV/AIDS, but early detection through HIV testing and treatment can frequently turn this fatal disease into a manageable chronic disease† (2009). The HIV-1 pandemic is a complex mix of diverse epidemics within and between countries and regions of the world. â€Å"AIDS remains the fourth leading cause of death in low-income countries† (International AIDS Vaccine Initiative, 2014). While there will never be a solution to HIV and AIDS, a preventive vaccine would do a great deal to curb the pandemic. But unfortunately, the problem with developing a vaccine is that the HIV genome mutates very quickly. Stowell (2006) explains that all organisms vary a little throughout the centuries. The HIV genome mutates around 1000 times more quickly than the human genome around 1000 times more mutations accumulate in a single year, relative to the length of the genome. Antiretroviral treatment has transformed AIDS from an inevitably fatal condition to a chronic, manageable disease in some settings.  Johannesburg (2010) cited The Lancet medical journal, which published a study that predicts that by 2031 – about 50 years into the HIV epidemic – annual new HIV infections will be roughly halved to about 1. 2 million.