Comparing Organization and Behavior between Nestle and HSBC

Comparing Organization and Behavior between Nestle and HSBC Nestle was found in 1866 by Hentri Nestle.Sales for 2009 were CHF 108 bn.Number of employees around 280000 people and have factories almost every country in the world.The companys priority is to bring the best and most relevant products to people, wherever they are,whatever their needs throughout their lives.The companys strategy is guided by several fundamental principles. Today Nestle present different markets in different main brands. -coffee,ice-cream,other beverages like Milo,diary-shelf stable nestle,dairy-chilled nestle, infant nutrition,performance nutrition, healthcare-nutrition, soups,sause(pasta,seasoning), frozen foods, refrigerated products, chocolate,confectionary and biscuits. Introduction to the HSBC- Hong-kong and Shanghal Banking Corporation (HSBC) is a public limited company that is headquarted in London, England.The HSBC was founded in Hong-kong,china but was force to move to London in 1992.It is the largest banking group in the world. It has many locations world-wide. Chester Barnard(1938) defined an organization as a system of co-operative human activities.Organizational behaviour is the study and application of knowledge about how people, individuals and groups act in organizations.The organizations base rests on managements philosophy,Values,vision and goals.The culture determines the types of leadership, communication and group dynamics within the organization.The workers perceive this as the quality of work life which directs their degree of motivation.The final outcome are performance,individual satisfaction and personal growth and development. All these elements combine to build the model or frame work that the organization operates from. . Organizational structure According Stoner et al., (1995; 315) organization structure refers to The way in which an organizations activities are divided, organized and co-ordinated. Therefore the structure of an organization establishes how work is allocated and controlled;how people and activities are grouped together;and the channels through which authority and communication are distributed within the organization Both HSBC and Nestle organizations have formal organizational structures.the objective is to survive,maximize their profits and to expand their business.The strategic management enables to achieve competitive advantage and competitive position in global market.The formal organization structure helps to achieve many objectives. To link individuals in an established network of relationships To group together the task required to fulfill the objectives of the organization as a whole, and to allocated them to suitable individuals for groups To allocated individuals or groups the authority they required to perform their functions as well as the responsibility to account for their supervisors This creates a hierarchy of command,whereby authority flows downward from senior to each level of the organization To enable the flow of work,information and other resources through the organization via clear lines of co-operation and communication. There are many factors which in influences the structure of organization. 1. Organizations size- as an organization gets larger its structure gets more complex.Therefore specification and subdivision are required.Both HSBC and Nestle are global organizations.They are very large in size. 2. Organizations task- the nature of its work.Nestle is a nutrition,helth and wellness company and HSBC is one of the largest financial and banking services industries in the global environment. 3. Organizations staff the skills and abilities of staff will determine how the work is structured and the degree of supervision required.The staff of the Nestle is much larger than HSBC because in HSBC most of the things are automated.but in Nestle most of the work has to be done by human. 4. Legal, commercial, technical and social environment of organization- both are legal and technology is very high.And both companies related to people in two ways. In an organizational structure span of control is another important thing.That means the number of subordinate immediately reporting to a superior official.Nestle have narrow span of control because it has a large number of levels of management hierarchy and HSBC have a wide span of control because it has a small number of hierarchical levels.Other important thing is decision making.If the decisions making doing by the top levels of the organization it is called centralization and if it is doing throughout all levels of the organization then it is called decentralization.Nestle company believes strongly in decentralization.In the case of HSBC,also decentralized and all branches of it controlled by a central committee.But it also subdivided on national and domestic market. Both companies are departmentalized on functional basis.There are six functional departmentaion within Nestle; Marketing Finance Packaging Sales Research and development Administration Organizational culture Organizational culture varies from organization to organization.It is difficult to define organizational culture. Deal Kennedy., (1982;4) defined organizational culture as The way things get done around here and J.A Stoner,R.E Freeman D.R Gilbrert defined it as Organizational culture is the set of important understanding such as norms , values, attitudes and beliefs shared by organizational members. Culture of an organization depends on the management style and organizational structures that are used.It could be; 1. Role culture-This tells how rules and regulations associated with employees and it is best suited for hierarchy organizational structure. 2. Task culture-This encourage the people to work as a team. 3. Power culture-This is in matrix structure and it is based on one dominant. 4. Person culture-This s based on person in the organization to help and support in their work HSBC have an effective strong organizational culture.As a part of this the management has initiated localization policies which are opened for most higher levels within operating to nationals that enables the company to top high-quality employee from different part of world.Within the organization culture of HSBC it is highly regarded for work-ethic endorsement.This involves the careful screening of employee with the necessary skills and high potential for improvement. Nestle have a organizational culture which vary from country to country because it is a food related organization.Nestle has good values; It also commitment to a strong work,ethics,integrity,honesty and quality. The personal relationships are based specialy on trust and mutual repect.This implies sociable attitude towards others. Pride in contributing to the performance of the company. Effect of structure and culture on business performance The relationship between organizational culture and structure is an important.But it is difficult to distinguish from one another.They are very much intertwined.Peter F Druker, a prominent writer of management,politics,economy and society(1995;190) highlighted organization structure is an indispensable means and the wrong structure will seriously impair business performance and may even destroy it Thus success or failure of out come of the organization depends on organizational structure. How management works,which specific responsibilities supervisors have,How a complaint is passed through the ranks all these issues within the organizational culture that are directly tied to how an organizational structure works. The degree to which tasks in the organization are subdivided into separate jobs( work specialization ) help to makes efficient use of employee skills and it will increases employee skills through repetition.Also wider spans of management increases organizational efficiency. Departmentalization of organization also helps to give efficient work and facilitates group work. The effect of the organizational culture are depending on whether the company has a strong culture or a weak culture.Therefore a strong organization culture will help take everyone more efficient and successful.If the members in the organization accept the core values and commit to those values, then the culture in that organization is strong when the culture is strong it will then influence on the behaviour of its members as a whole.This influence the behaviour of everyone within the organization. Strong cultures not only have a great impact on the behaviour of employees but also have a positive effect on the performance of the organization.Therefore strong culture lead organizations towards high performance and success. Approaches to management Organizations are comprised of managers and operatives.Operatives work directly on the work they have been assigned and are not responsible to oversee the work of others.But managers are responsible for the activities of others to ensure that things are going on as planned.The functions of management traditionally include;planning,organizing, commanding,co-ordinatng and control.But Managers job can not defined exactly. The structure of HSBC provide more efficient management over the whole organization.The management decisions within the organization are more flexible.Also as a part of strategic management HSBC has also been able to constantly stock of its workforce and assess their performance in exciting job.The managers of HSBC also given extensive development and training. In Nestle the members at management level are more concerned with continuously adding value to the company than exercising formal authority.The managers of Nestle should be able to motivate and develop people using their own techniques and openminded as well as a high level of interest in other cultures and life styles. Effectiveness of Leadership Leadership is an important factor to a group or an organization to make it effective.Management and Leadership are interchangeable.Leadership can be identified as the process of attempt to direct and fore others to achieve objective or objectives of the groups or organizations. Leadership styles are illustrates by theories of leadership.Leadership styles can be defined as the way in which the functions of leadership are carried out the way in which the leader typically behaves towards members of the group or the organization.In other words leader styles are the patterns of behaviours which a leader adopts in influencing behaviour of his/ her followers.The different styles of leadership are; Autocratic leadership style Democratic leadership style Laissez fair leadership style Autocratic or authoritarian style Under this leadership styles all decision making powers are centralized in the leader.They do not entertain any suggestions or initiatives from subordinates.It provide strong motivation to the manager.It permits quick decision making as only one person decides for the whole group and keeps each decision to himself until he feels it is needed to be shared with the rest of the group. Participative or democratic style This can be seen as the opposite of the autocratic leadership style.In this style group functions as a whole and there are number of interoperations.That means the functions of leadership are divided among members of the group or the members of the organization.They win the co0operation of their group and can motivate them effectively and positively. Laissez-fair or free rein style In this the leader assumes that all members of the group or the organization will perform well.Such leader allows maximum freedom to subordinates. Therefore the leader dose not interfere to the works of the members.But if the members need any help, the leader provides the necessary assistance.This is different from a situation where the leader is not considering about his functions and trying to avoid problem situations. The effectiveness of the above leadership styles may different from one situation to another situation.The success of a leader is measured by output or productivity of the group they lead but success is not effectiveness.If the subordinate follows the leader because of his position power,the leader is successful but not effective.The leader leads to a successful response and subordinate does the job because it is personally rewarding, it can be seen that the leader has not only positional power but also personal power.Then subordinates respect the leader and they are willing to compare realizing that the leaders request is consistent with some personal goal.Then it can be identified that the leader is effective. The factors affecting leadership effectiveness. The characteristics of leader Personality,attitudes,value system of the leader The relationship between leader and the group Characteristics of subordinates/group members The nature of the work organization Relationship among subordinates/group members Motivation and Motivational Theories A work place has members of group and the group has to achieve an objective or objectives.Thus the objectives or objectives can be achieved by the combined effort of its group members.For this effort to achieve objective or objectives efficiently and effectively,motivation of the group members should be there.Therefore it is necessary to know how to motivate group members of workplace.There are different theories of motivation attempted to explain the nature of motivation.These theories show that there are many motives that influence peoples behaviour. There are four theories of motivation; Maslows Hierachy of Needs Theory Herzbergs Two Factor Theory Alderfers Modified Needs Theory McClellands Achievement Motivation Theory 1. Maslows Hierachy of Needs Theory This motivation theory developed by Abraham Maslow and according to him people is being with needs and what they want depends on what they already have.He suggests that human needs are arranged in a series of levels depicting a hierarchy of importance.That is why theory is called as hierarchy of needs theory. Self- Actualization Need Esteem Need Love Need Safety Needs Physiological Needs Pyramidal diagram for Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Physiological Needs- In this need people try to satisfy their basic need for food, shelter and clothing.In work place if a person is paid enough salary to maintain above needs then employee engage with work willingly. Safety Needs-When physiological needs satisfied to reasonable level next important level is safety need.If they satisfied with safety needs people can be motivated by introducing pension schemes and by introducing projects for labour safety. Love Needs-Then they expect love and affection.When a leader know that such need to be prevailing within members of his/her workplace,the leader can be used following strategies. Providing opportunities for group entertainment Put them to work in groups Let them to more with groups in which they have affection Esteem Needs-At this level employee are concern with self respect,self confidence,a feeling of personal worth feelings of being unique and recognition.Here motivation can be exercised by providing positional status,appreciating,giving awards etc. Self-Actualization Needs-This is the highest need and it is the need to minimize ones potential,whatever it may be.Here the individual can be motivated by maximizing the benefits provided to the person earlier in line with personal goals. 2. Herzbergs Two Factor Theory Herzberg identified that there were two sets of factors affecting motivation and work.He introduced these factors as hygiene factor and motivators. Hygiene/Maintenance factor- Herzberg identified pay,job security,status, work environment,rules and regulations,nature of interpersonal relations and personal esteems as hygiene factors.By this factor dissatisfaction will be able to eliminate because this factor is related job context and they concerned with job environment and extrinsic to the job itself. Motivators/Growth factor- Herzberg identified recognition,responsibility,room for development and work place as motivator factors.It will lead to motivate employees.That means motivators are serve to motivation individual to superior effort and high level of performance.These are related to job content of the work itself. In a work place according to this theory by providing hygiene factors dissatisfaction of the employees can be removed and by providing motivators,employees can be kept satisfied. 3. Alderfers Modified Needs Theory This theory was introduced by Alderferand by this theory he condensed five levels of needs as Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Theory into three levels of core needs.They are; Existence Relatedness Growth Maslows Hierachy of Needs Theory Alderfers Modified Needs Hierachy Teory Physiological Needs Esistence Needs Safety needs Relatedness Needs Love Needs Esteem Needs Growth Needs Self-Actualization Needs Relationship between Maslows hierarchy of needs theory and Alderfers modified needs hierarchy theory According to the Alderfers modified needs hierarchy theory an individual is motivated to safety,one or more basic sets of needs.Therefore if a persons needs at a particular level are blocked then attention should be focused on the satisfaction of needs at the other levels 4.McClellands Achievement Motivation Theory This theory was presented by McClellands and colleagues and they identified three main arousal based and socially developed motives.They are; Needs for Affiliation Needs for Power Needs for Achievement In this theory they identified the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationship as needs for affiliation.The need to make others behave in a way that they would not behave otherwise was identified the derive to excel to achieve in relation to set of standards and to strive to succeed as needs for achievement. Ho Individual behaviour at work H However relative intensity of afflation; power and achievement motives varies among individuals Mc Celland and his colleagues identified 3 common characteristics among people with high achievement needs.These characteristics were ; 1. The preferences for personal responsibility 2. The setting of moderate goals 3. The desire for concrete feedback In a work place to achieve goal efficiently the setting of moderate gal is important because the task should be easy to achieve with a little challenge and feed back is necessary for self evaluation.Feedback enables to determine success or failure in the accomplishment of their goals and to derive satisfaction from their activities. In an organizations individuals/members are another important element.Within an organization the social system includes all the people in it and their relationship to each other and to the outside world.The behaviour of an individual can have an impact either directly or indirectly on the behaviour of others.The major factors which influence individual behaviour at work is as follows; Demographicfactors-Those are socio-economic background, education, nationality,age,sex etc..Normally organization prefer persons that belong to good socio-economic background,well educated and young person than others because they believe that they high work performances. Ability and skills-Ability can be defined as the individual can do and skill can be defined as the ability to act in a way to perform well.Therefore individual behaviour is highly influence by the abilities and skills to give a good performance. Personality-This can be defined as the characteristics of an individuals thoughts,feelings and behaviours.Heredity,family,society,culture and situation are factors which influence personality.It helps individuals in directing their effort and motivating them for achieving of the organizational goal. Attitude-The other most important factor is attitude of an individual.It can be defined as a tendency to respond favorably or unfavorably to certain states. Three basic components are containing in attitudes. They are; Knowledge and beliefs -Feelings and desire Volition and will Perception-This can be defined as the psychological process by which incoming data are selected and organized into patterns which are meaningful to the individual. Group behaviour within an organization A group can be defined as a collection of individuals to achieve a common goal/task.The members of the group are depending on each other Groups have become the core unit in many organizations.The group can be small or large to form a group there must be more than two individuals but there is no specific limit for the maximum number.It depend on the objective of the group.In an organization there are rules an regulations which control the activities of group.Also group influence their members attitudes and behaviour.Therefore groups are inseparable from organization.Group help to increase organization stability and it facilitate changes in organization procedures and policies.Therefore there is important impact of groups on organizational effectiveness. Group dynamics describe about group formation,norms, decision making,contributing. Therefore it shows how a group should be organized,operated and conducted.It is a set of techniques. Teamwork is very important in an organization to achieve its goals.An effective team always have clear team goals that encourage team members to replace priority of individual goals with that of team one Also there should be effective team leader who can motivate team members even in difficult situation. Effective teamwork can be archived through effective team building and teamwork is always beneficial for organizations.Teamwork increases flexibility and speed of the work because one task s is done by more than one individual with deferent skills. Stephen R. Covey define teams in organizations as An empowered organizations is one in which individuals have the knowledge, skill, desire and opportunity to personally succeed in a way that leads to collective organizational success. .

Hitler - A Method to His Madness Essay -- Essays Papers

Hitler - A Method to His Madness The Holocaust found its origins in Hitler's deep rooted hatred of the Jewish Society. This quote from Hitler's diary is an example of his feelings toward Jews... "The Jew has never founded any civilization, though he has destroyed hundreds. He must spread as a disease spreads. Already he has destroyed Russia; now it is the turn of Germany and, with his envious instinct for destruction he seeks to disintegrate the national spirit of the Germans and to pollute their blood." 1 Hitler believed that there was one race with a "natural advantage"2 over the others, and this race was the Aryans. He drew many of his Nazi ideas from Friedrich Nietzsche. Nietzsche was a German philosopher of the late 19th century who questioned traditional morality. Nietzsche and Hitler thought that Western society was decaying. They also felt that Christianity was weakening the the influence humanity's free will. In addition, they believed that passion and emotion were obstacles to obtaining rational thinking. These radical ideas led to a call for a super-race by using selective breeding to achieve ethnic cleansing. This plan of selective breeding included extermination. With Hitler's perverted mind and his execution of his ideals of superiority, nothing less than the Holocaust could have been expected. To achieve racial extermination, Hitler put the ideas of Nietzsche into motion. He saw the Aryans as a race above all others. Since blond hair and blue eyes were seen as superior, it was the duty of the Aryans to "enslave the lesser races-- such as the Slavs so that it could continue to push forward the boundaries of human achievement".3 Hitler began his work with the Nuremberg race laws of 1935. These laws... ...nurlawtoc.html> - Waite, Robert G.L. The Psychopathic God: Adolf Hitler. New York: De Capo Press, 1993 - Wistrich, Robert. Hitler’s Apocalypse. New York: St. Martins Press, 1985" Endnotes 1. Liang, Stuart. The Illustrated Hitler Diary. London: Marshall Cavendish, 1980 2. Liang, Stuart 3. Liang, Stuart 4. The Nuremberg Laws." The Jewish Student Online Research Center. 17 October 1998. http://www.us-isreal. org/jsource/Holocaust/nurlawtoc.html> 5. Waite, Robert G.L. The Psychopathic God: Adolf Hitler. New York: De Capo Press, 1993 6. "Heinrich Himmler." 24 October 1998. <http://www.wsg-hist .uni-linz.ac.at/ Auschwitz/ HTML/himmler.html> 7. Picard, Max. Hitler in Our Selves. Illinois: Henry Regnery Company, 1947. 8. Picard, Max

Applied Electricity Lecture Notes

Module 4 Single-phase AC Circuits Version 2 EE IIT, Kharagpur Lesson 13 Representation of Sinusoidal Signal by a Phasor and Solution of Current in R-L-C Series Circuits Version 2 EE IIT, Kharagpur In the last lesson, two points were described: 1. How a sinusoidal voltage waveform (ac) is generated? 2. How the average and rms values of the periodic voltage or current waveforms, are computed? Some examples are also described there. In this lesson, the representation of sinusoidal (ac) voltage/current signals by a phasor is first explained. The polar/Cartesian (rectangular) form of phasor, as complex quantity, is described.Lastly, the algebra, involving the phasors (voltage/current), is presented. Different mathematical operations – addition/subtraction and multiplication/division, on two or more phasors, are discussed. Keywords: Phasor, Sinusoidal signals, phasor algebra After going through this lesson, the students will be able to answer the following questions; 1. What is mean t by the term, ‘phasor’ in respect of a sinusoidal signal? 2. How to represent the sinusoidal voltage or current waveform by phasor? 3. How to write a phasor quantity (complex) in polar/Cartesian (rectangular) form? 4.How to perform the operations, like addition/subtraction and multiplication/division on two or more phasors, to obtain a phasor? This lesson forms the background of the following lessons in the complete module of single ac circuits, starting with the next lesson on the solution of the current in the steady state, in R-L-C series circuits. Symbols i or i(t) Instantaneous value of the current (sinusoidal form) I Im ? Current (rms value) Maximum value of the current Phasor representation of the current Phase angle, say of the current phasor, with respect to the reference phasor I Same symbols are used for voltage or any other phasor. Representation of Sinusoidal Signal by a Phasor A sinusoidal quantity, i. e. current, i (t ) = I m sin ? t , is taken up as an example. In Fig. 13. 1a, the length, OP, along the x-axis, represents the maximum value of the current I m , on a certain scale. It is being rotated in the anti-clockwise direction at an angular speed, ? , and takes up a position, OA after a time t (or angle, ? = ? t , with the x-axis). The vertical projection of OA is plotted in the right hand side of the above figure with respect to the angle ? It will generate a sine wave (Fig. 13. 1b), as OA is at an angle, ? with the x-axis, as stated earlier. The vertical projection of OA along y-axis is OC = AB = Version 2 EE IIT, Kharagpur i (? ) = I m sin ? , which is the instantaneous value of the current at any time t or angle ? . The angle ? is in rad. , i. e. ? = ? t . The angular speed, ? is in rad/s, i. e. ? = 2 ? f , where f is the frequency in Hz or cycles/sec. Thus, i = I m sin ? = I m sin ? t = I m sin 2? ft So, OP represents the phasor with respect to the above current, i.The line, OP can be taken as the rms value, I = I m / 2 , instead of maximum value, Im . Then the vertical projection of OA, in magnitude equal to OP, does not represent exactly the instantaneous value of I, but represents it with the scale factor of 1 / 2 = 0. 707 . The reason for this choice of phasor as given above, will be given in another lesson later in this module. Version 2 EE IIT, Kharagpur Generalized case The current can be of the form, i (t ) = I m sin (? t ? ? ) as shown in Fig. 13. 1d. The phasor representation of this current is the line, OQ, at an angle, ? may be taken as negative), with the line, OP along x-axis (Fig. 13. 1c). One has to move in clockwise direction to go to OQ from OP (reference line), though the phasor, OQ is assumed to move in anti-clockwise direction as given earlier. After a time t, OD will be at an angle ? with OQ, which is at an angle ( ? ? ? = ? t ? ? ), with the line, OP along x-axis. The vertical projection of OD along y-axis gives the instantaneous value of the current, i = 2 I sin (? t ? ? ) = I m sin (? t ? ? ) . Phasor representation of Voltage and Current The voltage and current waveforms are given as, v = 2 V sin ? and i = 2 I sin (? + ? ) It can be seen from the waveforms (Fig. 13. 2b) of the two sinusoidal quantities – voltage and current, that the voltage, V lags the current I, which means that the positive maximum value of the voltage is reached earlier by an angle, ? , as compared to the positive maximum value of the current. In phasor notation as described earlier, the voltage and current are represented by OP and OQ (Fig. 13. 2a) respectively, the length of which are proportional to voltage, V and current, I in different scales as applicable to each one.The voltage phasor, OP (V) lags the current phasor, OQ (I) by the angle ? , as two phasors rotate in the anticlockwise direction as stated earlier, whereas the angle ? is also measured in the anticlockwise direction. In other words, the current phasor (I) leads the voltage phasor (V). Version 2 EE IIT, Kha ragpur Mathematically, the two phasors can be represented in polar form, with the voltage phasor ( V ) taken as reference, such as V = V ? 0 0 , and I = I . In Cartesian or rectangular form, these are, V = V ? 0 0 = V + j 0 , and I = I = I cos ? + j I sin ? , where, the symbol, j is given by j = ? . Of the two terms in each phasor, the first one is termed as real or its component in x-axis, while the second one is imaginary or its component in y-axis, as shown in Fig. 13. 3a. The angle, ? is in degree or rad. ? ? ? ? ? Phasor Algebra Before discussing the mathematical operations, like addition/subtraction and multiplication/division, involving phasors and also complex quantities, let us take a look at the two forms – polar and rectangular, by which a phasor or complex quantity is represented. It may be observed here that phasors are also taken as complex, as given above.Representation of a phasor and Transformation A phasor or a complex quantity in rectangular form (Fig. 13 . 3) is, A = ax + j a y Version 2 EE IIT, Kharagpur ? where a x and a y are real and imaginary parts, of the phasor respectively. In polar form, it is expressed as A = A a = A cos ? a + j A sin ? a ? where A and ? a are magnitude and phase angle of the phasor. From the two equations or expressions, the procedure or rule of transformation from polar to rectangular form is a x = A cos ? a and a y = A sin ? a From the above, the rule for transformation from rectangular to polar form is 2 2 A = a x + a y and ? = tan ? 1 (a y / a x ) The examples using numerical values are given at the end of this lesson. Addition/Subtraction of Phasors Before describing the rules of addition/subtraction of phasors or complex quantities, everyone should recall the rule of addition/subtraction of scalar quantities, which may be positive or signed (decimal/fraction or fraction with integer). It may be stated that, for the two operations, the quantities must be either phasors, or complex. The example of ph asor is voltage/current, and that of complex quantity is impedance/admittance, which will be explained in the next lesson.But one phasor and another complex quantity should not be used for addition/subtraction operation. For the operations, the two phasors or complex quantities must be expressed in rectangular form as A = a x + j a y ; B = bx + j b y If they are in polar form as A = A a ; B = B b In this case, two phasors are to be transformed to rectangular form by the procedure or rule given earlier. The rule of addition/subtraction operation is that both the real and imaginary parts have to be separately treated as ? ? ? ? where c x = (a x  ± b x ) ; c y = (a y  ± b y ) Say, for addition, real parts must be added, so also for imaginary parts.Same rule follows for subtraction. After the result is obtained in rectangular form, it can be transformed to polar one. It may be observed that the six values of a' s , b' s and c' s – parts of the two phasors and the resultant one, are all signed scalar quantities, though in the example, a' s and b' s are taken as positive, resulting in positive values of c' s . Also the phase angle ? ‘ s may lie in any of the four quadrants, though here the angles are in the first quadrant only. This rule for addition can be extended to three or more quantities, as will be illustrated through example, which is given at the end of this lesson.C = A  ± B = (a x  ± bx ) + j (a y  ± b y ) = c x + j c y ? ? ? Version 2 EE IIT, Kharagpur The addition/subtraction operations can also be performed using the quantities as ? ? ? phasors in polar form (Fig. 13. 4). The two phasors are A (OA) and B (OB) . The find the sum C (OC ) , a line AC is drawn equal and parallel to OB. The line BC is equal and parallel to OA. Thus, C = OC = OA + AC = OA + OB = A + B . Also, OC = OB + BC = OB + OA ? ? ? ? To obtain the difference D (OD) , a line AD is drawn equal and parallel to OB, but in opposite direction to AC or OB.A line OE is also drawn equal to OB, but in opposite direction to OB. Both AD and OE represent the phasor ( ? B ). The line, ED is equal to OA. Thus, D = OD = OA + AD = OA ? OB = A ? B . Also OD = OE + ED = ? OB + OA . The examples using numerical values are given at the end of this lesson. ? ? ? ? Multiplication/Division of Phasors Firstly, the procedure for multiplication is taken up. In this case no reference is being made to the rule involving scalar quantities, as everyone is familiar with them. Assuming that the two phasors are available in polar from as A = A a and B = B b .Otherwise, they are to be transformed from rectangular to polar form. This is also valid for the procedure of division. Please note that a phasor is to be multiplied by a complex quantity only, to obtain the resultant phasor. A phasor is not normally multiplied by another phasor, except in special case. Same is for division. A phasor is to be divided by a complex quantity only, to obtain the resultant phasor. A phas or is not normally divided by another phasor. ? ? ? To find the magnitude of the product C , the two magnitudes of the phasors are to be multiplied, whereas for phase angle, the phase angles are to added.Thus, Version 2 EE IIT, Kharagpur C = C c = A? B = A A ? B B = ( A ? B ) ? (? a + ? b ) ? ? ? where C = A ? B and ? c = ? a + ? b ? Please note that the same symbol, C is used for the product in this case. ? ? ? To divide A . by B to obtain the result D . , the magnitude is obtained by division of the magnitudes, and the phase is difference of the two phase angles. Thus, D = D d = ? ? A ? = B where D = A / B and ? d = ? a ? ? b ? ? A a ? A ? = ? ? ? (? a ? ? b ) B b ? B ? If the phasors are expressed in rectangular form as A = a x + j a y and B = bx + j by here A = (a 2 x ? 2 + a y ; ? a = tan ? 1 (a y / a x ) ) The values of B are not given as they can be obtained by substituting b' s for a' s . To find the product, C = C c = A ? B = (a x + j a y ) ? (bx + j b y ) = (a x bx ? a y b y ) + j (a x b y + a y bx ) ? ? ? Please note that j 2 = ? 1 . The magnitude and phase angle of the result (phasor) are, C = (a x bx ? a y b y ) + (a x b y + a y bx ) 2 [ 1 2 2 ] = (a 2 x 2 + ay ? ) (b 2 x 2 + b y = A ? B , and ) ? c = tan ? 1 ? ? ? a x b y + a y bx ? ? a x bx ? a y b y ? ? ? The phase angle, ? c = ? a + ? b = tan ? 1 ? ? a x b y + a y bx = tan ? 1 ? ?a b ? a b y y ? x x ? ? ? ? ay ? ax ? ? ? ? ? ? b ? + tan ? 1 ? y ? ?b ? ? x ? (a / a ) + (b y / bx ) ? ? ? = tan ? 1 ? y x ? ? ? 1 ? (a y / a x ) ? (b y / bx )? ? ? ? The above results are obtained by simplification. ? To divide A by B to obtain D as D = dx + j dy = ? ? A ? = ax + j a y bx + j by ? B To simplify D , i. e. to obtain real and imaginary parts, both numerator and denominator, are to be multiplied by the complex conjugate of B , so as to convert the ? denominator into real value only. The complex conjugate of B is Version 2 EE IIT, KharagpurB * = bx + j b y = B ? ? ? b In the complex conjugate, the sign of the imaginary part is negative, and also the phase angle is negative. ? (a x + j a y )? (bx ? j by ) = ? a x bx + a y by ? + j ? a y bx ? a x by ? ? ? ? ? D = dx + j dy = (bx + j by )? (bx ? j by ) ? bx2 + by2 ? ? bx2 + by2 ? ? ? ? ? The magnitude and phase angle of the result (phasor) are, [(a b D= x x + a y b y ) + (a y bx ? a x b y ) 2 1 2 2 (b 2 x +b 2 y ) ] = (a (b 2 x 2 x 2 + ay 2 + by ) A = , and ) B ? a y bx ? a x b y ? ? ? d = tan ? 1 ? ?a b +a b ? y y ? ? x x The phase angle, ? ay ? ax ? ? ? ? tan ? 1 ? y ? b ? ? x ? ? a b ? a xby ? ? = tan ? 1 ? y x ? ?a b +a b y y ? ? x x ? ? ? ? ? d = ? a ? ? b = tan ? 1 ? ? The steps are shown here in brief, as detailed steps have been given earlier. Example ? The phasor, A in the rectangular form (Fig. 13. 5) is, A = A a = A cos ? a + j A sin ? a = a x + j a y = ? 2 + j 4 where the real and imaginary parts are a x = ? 2 ; ? ? ay = 4 To transform the phasor, A into the polar form, the magnitude and phase angle are Version 2 E E IIT, Kharagpur 2 2 A = a x + a y = (? 2) 2 + 4 2 = 4. 472 ? 4 ? ? = tan ? 1 ? ? ? 116. 565 ° = 2. 034 rad ? ? ? 2? ? Please note that ? a is in the second quadrant, as real part is negative and imaginary part is positive. ? a = tan ? 1 ? ? ? ay ? ax ? Transforming the phasor, A into rectangular form, the real and imaginary parts are a x = A cos? a = 4. 472 ? cos116. 565 ° = ? 2. 0 a y = A sin ? a = 4. 472 ? sin 116. 565 ° = 4. 0 Phasor Algebra ? ? ? Another phasor, B in rectangular form is introduced in addition to the earlier one, A B = 6 + j 6 = 8. 485 ? 45 ° Firstly, let us take the addition and subtraction of the above two phasors. The sum and ? difference are given by the phasors, C and D respectively (Fig. 13. 6). C = A+ B = (? 2 + j 4) +(6 + j 6) = (? 2 + 6) + j (4 + 6) = 4 + j 10 = 10. 77 ? 68. 2 ° D = A? B = (? 2 + j 4) ? (6 + j 6) = (? 2 ? 6) + j (4 ? 6) = ? 8 ? j 2 = 8. 246 ? ? 166. 0 ° It may be noted that for the addition and subtraction operations involvi ng phasors, they should be represented in rectangular form as given above. If any one of the phasors Version 2 EE IIT, Kharagpur ? ? ? ? ? ? is in polar form, it should be transformed into rectangular form, for calculating the results as shown.If the two phasors are both in polar form, the phasor diagram (the diagram must be drawn to scale), or the geometrical method can be used as shown in Fig 13. 6. The result obtained using the diagram, as shown are the same as obtained earlier. [ C (OC) = 10. 77, ? COX = 68. 2 ° ; and D ( OD) = 8. 246, ? DOX = 166. 0 ° ] Now, the multiplication and division operations are performed, using the above two phasors represented in polar form. If any one of the phasors is in rectangular form, it may be transformed into polar form. Also note that the same symbols for the phasors are used here, as was used earlier.Later, the method of both multiplication and division using rectangular form of the phasor representation will be explained. ? ? ? The res ultant phasor C , i. e. the product of the two phasors is C = A? B = 4. 472 ? 116. 565 ° ? 8. 485 ? 45 ° = (4. 472 ? 8. 485) ? (116. 565 ° + 45 °) = 37. 945 ? 161. 565 ° = ? 36 + j 12 The product of the two phasors in rectangular form can be found as C = (? 2 + j 4) ? (6 + j 6) = (? 12 ? 24) + j (24 ? 12) = ? 36 + j 12 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? The result ( D ) obtained by the division of A by B is D= ? ? A ? = B = 0. 167 + j 0. The above result can be calculated by the procedure described earlier, using the rectangular form of the two phasors as D= ? ? 4. 472 ? 116. 565 ° ? 4. 472 ? =? ? ? (116. 565 ° ? 45 °) = 0. 527 ? 71. 565 ° 8. 485 ? 45 ° ? 8. 485 ? A ? = B 12 + j 36 = = 0. 167 + j 0. 5 72 ? 2 + j 4 ( ? 2 + j 4) ? (6 ? j 6) (? 12 + 24) + j (24 + 12) = = 6+ j6 ( 6 + j 6) ? ( 6 ? j 6) 62 + 62 The procedure for the elementary operations using two phasors only, in both forms of representation is shown. It can be easily extended, for say, addition/multiplication, using thre e or more phasors.The simplification procedure with the scalar quantities, using the different elementary operations, which is well known, can be extended to the phasor quantities. This will be used in the study of ac circuits to be discussed in the following lessons. The background required, i. e. phasor representation of sinusoidal quantities (voltage/current), and algebra – mathematical operations, such as addition/subtraction and multiplication/division of phasors or complex quantities, including transformation of phasor from rectangular to polar form, and vice versa, has been discussed here.The study of ac circuits, starting from series ones, will be described in the next few lessons. Version 2 EE IIT, Kharagpur Problems 13. 1 Use plasor technique to evaluate the expression and then find the numerical value at t = 10 ms. i ( t ) = 150 cos (100t – 450 ) + 500 sin (100t ) + d ? cos 100t – 30 0 ) ? ? dt ? ( 13. 2 Find the result in both rectangular and polar f orms, for the following, using complex quantities: 5 – j12 15 ? 53. 1 ° b) ( 5 – j12 ) +15 ? – 53. 1 ° a) 2 ? 30 ° – 4 ? 210 ° 5 ? 450 ° 1 ? ? d) ? 5 ? 0 ° + ? . 2 ? 210 ° 3 2 ? – 45 ° ? ? c)Version 2 EE IIT, Kharagpur List of Figures Fig. 13. 1 (a) Phasor representation of a sinusoidal voltage, and (b) Waveform Fig. 13. 2 (a) Phasor representation of voltage and current, and (b) Waveforms Fig. 13. 3 Representation of a phasor, both in rectangular and polar forms Fig. 13. 4 Addition and subtraction of two phasors, both represented in polar form Fig. 13. 5 Representation of phasor as an example, both in rectangular and polar forms Fig. 13. 6 Addition and subtraction of two phasors represented in polar form, as an example Version 2 EE IIT, Kharagpur

The Critical Race Theory Essay example - 1878 Words

Introduction We live in a society where race is seen as a vital part of our personalities, the lack of racial identity is very often an important factor which prevent people from not having their own identity (Omi Winant, 1993). Racism is extemely ingrained in our society and it seems ordinary (Delgado Stefanic, 2000), however, many people denounce the expression of any racist belief as immoral (Miles Brown, 2003) highlighting the complicated nature of racism. Critical Race Theory tries to shed light on the issue of racism claiming that racism is ingrained in our society both in legal, cultural, and psychological aspects of social life (Tate, 1997). This essay provides us the opportunity to explore this theory and its†¦show more content†¦Critical Race Theory (CRT) claims that racism is quite usual in social life and white superiority is extremely ingrained in educational, legal, and political structures which is often unrecognizable (Taylor, 2009). According to Delgado and Stefanic (2000): ‘‘CRT begins with an a number of basic insticts. One is that racism is normal, not abberrant, in American society. Because racism is an ingrained feature of our landscape, it looks ordinary and natural to persons in the culture. Formal equal opportunity – rules and laws that insist on treating blacks and whites (for example) alike – can thus remedy only the more extreme and shocking forms of injustice, the ones that do stand out. It can do little about the business-as-usual forms of racism that people of color confront every day and that account for much misery, alienation, and despair’’ (Delgado Stefanic, 2000: xvi). Although, this theory began as a part of law sciences, nowadays, there is a great interest of CRT in the field of education, helping people to understand some forms of discrimination which face the non-white people in education (Delgado Stefanic, 2001). 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